Ref Manual Servicing Technicians Unit 01(Environmental impact of refrigeration and air conditioning (rac) systems)

1.1. Introduction

Refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump applications represent the major consumer of halogenated chemical substances used as refrigerants; it is also one of the most important energy sector users in our society today. It is estimated that, on average, for developed countries, the RAC sectors are responsible for 10-20% of electricity consumption.

The economic impact of refrigeration applications is significant; estimates indicate 300 million tonnes of continually refrigerating goods, with huge annual electricity consumption, and about US$ 100 billion in equipment investments, where the estimated value of the products treated by refrigeration are about four times this sum. This is one of the reasons why economic impacts of the elimination of refrigerant chemical substances such as CFCs and in the near future HCFCs have been hard to calculate.

Although HCFCs had been used since the 1930s, because of their relatively low ozone depleting potential (ODP), they were not at first included in the controls for ODS. As such, they were used within mixture of other chemical compounds to enable the easy replacement of CFCs. It was, however, acknowledged at the time that these chemicals were transitional since their production and consumption was also to be phased out under the Montreal Protocol.

About The Ozone Layer	4
About the Montreal Protocol	4

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Impact

The ozone layer

As the sun’s radiation approaches the planet’s surface it can be scattered, reflected, or absorbed, intercepted and re-emitted. This is where the ozone layer comes into its own by scattering and reflecting harmful high energy ultraviolet radiation. Variations in temperature and pressure divide the Earth’s atmosphere into layers and the mixing of gases between the layers happens very slowly. That is why this 90% of the ozone stays in the upper atmosphere. This stratospheric ozone contains 90% of all ozone gas on the Earth but it is spread thinly and unevenly.

Life on earth has been safeguarded because of a protective layer in the atmosphere. This layer, composed of ozone, acts as a shield to protect the earth against the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms (O3) instead of two (O2). Through natural atmospheric processes, ozone molecules are created and destroyed continuously. Ultraviolet radiation

from the sun breaks up oxygen molecules into atoms which then combine with other oxygen molecules to form ozone. Ozone is not a stable gas and is particularly vulnerable to destruction by natural compounds containing hydrogen, nitrogen and chlorine.

Near the earth’s surface (the troposphere) ozone is an increasingly troublesome pollutant, a constituent of photochemical smog and acid rain. But safely up in the stratosphere, 11 to 48 km above the earth’s surface, the blue, pungent-smelling gas is as important

to life as oxygen itself. Ozone forms a fragile shield, curiously insubstantial but remarkably effective.

The distribution of ozone in the atmosphere is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

	35			20
ALTITUDE(KILOMETERS)	30				ALTITUDE(MILES)
			STRATOSPHERIC
	25		OZONE	15
		OZONE LAYER
	20
	15			10
	10	OZONE		05
		INCREASES	TROPOSPHERIC
	5	FROM POLLUTION	OZONE

0

OZONE CONCENTRATION

Distribution of ozone in atmosphere.

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1. The exosphere	The sunlight still contains very high-energy photons, which can heat gas
(2400km))	particles in the exosphere up to 2,500 degrees C during the day.
2. The ionosphere	Most high energy photons are absorbed here leading to a few air
			molecules becoming electrically charged.
3. The ozone layer	This thin layer at the top of the stratosphere absorbs most of the ultra-
	violet (UV) light. Too much UV light can cause damage to living things
	so the ozone layer is very important in protecting life on Earth.
4.The stratosphere	Ozone depletion relies on the clouds in the stratosphere: Polar
(50km)	stratospheric clouds (PSCs), also known as nacreous clouds, are
	CLOUDS in the winter polar STRATOSPHERE at altitudes of 15,000–25,000
	metres (50,000–80,000 ft). They are implicated in the formation of OZONE
	HOLES;	[1]	their effects on ozone depletion arise because they support
			chemical reactions.
5. The troposphere (8-15	The troposphere contains most of the air molecules, nearly all the water
km).	vapour so all of the clouds are in this layer. All these particles mean that
	a lot of sunlight is scattered. Shorter wavelengths (violet and blue) are
	scattered more than longer wavelengths, making the sky appear blue.
6. Absorption of	The Earth emits a lot of long wavelength radiation from its surface and
radiation emitted by the	much of this is absorbed and scattered in the troposphere. Greenhouse
Earth	gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapour are responsible for
	most of this absorption, making the temperature around the Earth
			higher.

This ozone filter efficiently screens out almost all the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun; the ozone layer absorbs most of the dangerous UV-B radiation (radiation between UV-A which is allowed through and UV-C which is mainly captured by oxygen, as indicated in Figure

1.2). Any damage that is done to the ozone layer will lead to increased UV-B radiation. Increases of UV-B radiation have been clearly observed in areas experiencing periods of intense ozone depletion.

Any increased UV-B that reaches the earth’s surface has a potential to cause considerable harm to the environment and to life on earth. A small decrease in the ozone layer could significantly increase the incidence of skin cancer, and could lead to an acceleration

of the rarer but more virulent form of cancer known as coetaneous malignant melanoma. Increased UV-B could lead to increased incidents of eye damage, including cataracts, deformation of the eye lenses, and presbyopia. Eye cataracts, the leading cause of blindness in the world, are expected to increase considerably.

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A
-	OZONE LAYER
UV
B
-
UV

EARTH

Figure 1.2. Radiation from the sun

UV rays are dangerous to human beings, animals and plants because they burn. They can penetrate our skin and eyes and weaken our bodies’ immune system. That is why we should avoid long periods in the sun. To get the minimum daily dose of vitamin D only 15 minutes in the sun per day is enough. If we stay more than that, we might get sunburnt if no protection is used. Repeated sunburns and frequent tanning can cause premature ageing of the skin and, at worst, skin cancer such as melanoma (because of UV-A and UV-B). For the eyes the UV-B rays can cause a cataract (clouding of the eye lens). Most of the serious health problems appear only many years later.

CATEGORY	WAVELENGTHS	REACTIONS IN &	EFFECT UPON
	(nanometres)	WITH	HUMANS, PLANTS ETC.
		STRATOSPHERE
UV-A:	315/320 - 400 nm	Not significantly	10-15% of ‘burning’:
		absorbed by the	possible connection with
		stratospheric ozone	the formation of skin
		layer.	cancers. Responsible for
			'tanning' & skin ageing.
UV-B:	280 – 315/320 nm	Absorbed by ozone	85 – 90 % ‘burning’;
		in the stratosphere.	involved with both
		Ozone absorbs UV	malignant & benign
		radiation without	cancerous growths. Also
		being reduced; the	linked to eye cataracts.
		overall result being	Effects on growth of plants
		to convert UV	and marine life. Strong
		radiation to heat.	radiation kills also plankton
			in the water which is the
			main food supply for
			fishes.
UV-C:	200 - 280 nm	Highly absorbed by	Not thought to be
		oxygen molecules:	significant, mainly because
		involved with	of its efficient absorption
		formation of ozone.	at high-altitudes.

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Exposure to increased UV-B radiation could also suppress the body’s immune system.

Immunosuppression by UV-B occurs irrespective of human skin pigmentation. Such effects could exacerbate the poor health situations of many developing countries.

Increased UV-B radiation could also cause decreased crop yields and damage to forests. It could affect ocean life causing damage to aquatic organisms, parts of the marine food web, which may lead to a decrease in fish higher up the food chain. Materials used in buildings, paints, packaging and countless other substances could be rapidly degraded by increased UV-B.

Depletion of stratospheric ozone could aggravate the photochemical pollution in the troposphere resulting in an increase of ozone at the surface of the earth where it is not wanted. Earth and inhabitants, therefore, have an enormous stake in preserving the fragile ozone layer shield.

Global consensus supports the theory that chlorine and bromine containing man-made chemicals emitted into the atmosphere are responsible for the depletion of ozone in the stratosphere. The larger part of these compounds, called ODS, consists of CFCs, HCFCs and halons (used as fire extinguishing agents), which are most effective in ozone depletion. CFCs have been used for years as refrigerants, solvents or blowing agents. ODS are classified considering how harmful they are for the ozone layer using a parameter called ozone depleting potential (ODP).

ODP is a relative index indicating the extent to which a chemical product may cause ozone depletion. The reference level of 1 is the potential of R11 and R12 to cause ozone depletion. If a product has an ODP of 0.5, a given weight of the product in the atmosphere would, in time, destroy half the amount of ozone that the same weight of R11 would destroy. ODP is calculated from mathematical models which take into account factors such as the stability of the product, the rate of diffusion, the quantity of depleting atoms per molecule and the effect of ultraviolet light and other radiation on the molecules.

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The ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol

CFCs (ANNEX A/I) PRODUCTION/CONSUMPTION REDUCTION SCHEDULE

Environmental

UNEP has been concerned about the protection of the ozone layer since its inception in 1972. In March 1985,

the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer	120 %
was signed in Vienna. The Convention provided for future	100 %
protocols and specified procedures for amendment
and dispute settlement. In September 1987, agreement	80 %
was reached on specific measures to be taken and the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone	60 %
Layer was signed. Under the Protocol, the first concrete
step to protect the ozone layer was taken, a 50%
reduction in the production and consumption of specified	40 %

CFCs by the year 1999.

20 %

Even as the nations adopted the Protocol in 1987, new

scientific findings indicated that the Protocol’s control _{0 %} measures were inadequate to restore the ozone layer. In addition, developing countries expressed concern over

the vague language both regarding technology transfer to developing countries and regarding financial assistance. As a result of the Second Meeting of the Parties in

London (1990), the Montreal schedules were adjusted so that the five CFCs (R11, R12, R113, R114 and R115) and the three halons would be phased out by the year 2000. Methyl chloroform was to be controlled and to be phased out in 2005. Figure 1.3 shows the CFC phase-out schedules for Article 5 and Non-Article 5 countries.

NON - A5			ARTICLE 5			CFC-NON-A5
						CFC-A5
BASELINE			BASELINE
1989		95-97

JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-   JAN-

1986   1988    1990    1992   1994    1996   1998    2000    2002   2004    2006    2008   2010    2012    2014

MONTH/YEAR

Figure 1.3 Article 5 and Non-Article 5 countries phase-out schedules of Annex A Group I CFCs

The UNEP Assessment Panels did a substantial amount of work in 1991. These Panels consider the science, the effects and the technology that is in place to replace and phase out the controlled chemicals.

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On the basis of these reports the parties to the Montreal Protocol discussed again a tightening of the control schedules.

Achieving the goals of the Montreal Protocol depends on widespread cooperation among all the nations of the world. It is not enough that the developed nations, which accounted in 1986 for 85% of the consumption of ODS, participate in the Protocol. The participation of developing countries, which consumed only 15% in 1986, is also vitally important. HCFC consumption in developing countries has been growing at a much higher rate than in the developed world.

As long ago as 1987, developing countries were given incentives to conform with the Protocol in the form of a grace period of 10 years for implementation and technical assistance (Articles 5 and

10 in the Protocol). However, by 1989 many of the larger developing nations indicated that the provisions were inadequate. They argued that it was not they that were responsible for depleting the ozone layer. And as they are just beginning to develop economically and to use the low cost CFC technology acquired from the developed

since 1991; under the Fund, UNEP OzonAction is responsible for information dissemination, training and networking. This manual is part of UNEP’s work programme related to training on good practices in refrigeration in developing countries.

What is your countries protocol status from

4  http://ozone.unep.org/Ratification_status/list_of_article_5_parties. shtml

Contact your National Ozone Units/Officers available on

4  http://www.uneptie.org/ozonaction/information/contacts.htm to find out actions being taken by your government.

Although having considerably lower ODP than CFCs, many HCFCs have high global warming potentials (GWP), of over 2000 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2).

countries, they require help with the costs. If they are to bind themselves to strict schedules for adopting new technologies, they need to be given the new technologies and the finance necessary to adopt them. Negotiations on this issue resulted in the establishment of a new financial mechanism in London, 1990, through a new

The reasons for the phasing out

For the impacts on climate change and global warming

Effects of Ozone Depletion	4
Global Warming	4

Article 10 in the Montreal Protocol.

The mechanism includes a Multilateral Fund and other multilateral, regional and bilateral co-operation. The Fund has now operated

Key dates in refrigeration development, a summary of what is happening and deadlines before different refrigerants become illegal to use.

Timeline Activity	4

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Effects of ozone layer depletion on the environment

With the loss of the shield from ultraviolet radiation, serious damage can result on all living organisms. The severity of the situation is augmented by the fact that each one percent depletion of ozone results in up to two percent increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation.

Plant and marine life could be adversely affected by increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation caused by depletion of the ozone layer. The sensitive ecosystem of the oceans may be adversely affected. The phytoplankton and larvae of many species that live from the surface of the ocean down to several metres below the surface could well be sensitive to increased exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Increased exposure results in reduced productivity, which means less plant life and fewer fish harvested from the seas.

The Global Solar UV Index, developed by the World Health Organization in collaboration with UNEP and the World Meteorological Organisation, is a tool to describe the level of UV radiation at the Earth’s surface. It uses a range of values from zero upwards, taking into account all the factors to indicate the potential for adverse health effects due to UV radiation. The higher the value, the greater the amount of dangerous UV rays.

UV factors	High UV radiation
Time of the day	Between 10 am to 4 pm
Time of the year	Summer or hot season
Location	Especially close to the equator and poles
Elevation	Altitude above sea level
Reflection	Sand, snow, water and ice
Weather	No dark clouds in front of the sun

Activity

Fortunately there are many easy ways to protect ourselves from these dangerous rays. Use that information to write out a four point action plan.

•      During the hot season avoid the sun between 10 am and 4 pm when the UV Index is the highest.

•      Search for a shade when you’re outside. Under a tree there might be up to 60% less radiation than in a sunny place.

•       Cover your skin and eyes. Wear long sleeves, trousers, a hat or something to cover your head and sunglasses to protect your eyes.

•      Use sunscreen. If you want to go swimming, avoid the midday hours and use sunscreen for the whole body as the water reflects the rays efficiently and increases the radiation. Also while wearing a long-sleeved shirt use some sunscreen on your hands or other parts that are not covered. Sunscreen should also be used often; if you put it once and stay in the sun for hours that is not enough to well protect your skin. Also every time you go swimming you should add sunscreen afterwards.

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Global warming

The earth’s temperature is maintained by a balance between heating from solar radiation flowing in from the sun, and cooling from infrared radiation emitted by the earth’s warm surface and atmosphere escaping back to into space. The sun is the earth’s only external source of heat. When solar radiation, in the form of visible light, reaches the earth, some is absorbed by the atmosphere and reflected from clouds and land (especially from deserts and snow). The remainder is absorbed by the surface which is heated and in turn warms the atmosphere. The warm surface and atmosphere

of the earth emit invisible infrared radiation. While the atmosphere is relatively transparent to solar radiation, infrared radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere by many less abundant gases. Though present in small amounts, these trace gases act like a blanket, preventing much of the infrared radiation from escaping directly to space. By slowing

SUN

the release of cooling

radiation, these gases ^{SUN’S RADIATION} warm the earth’s surface.

This process is illustrated

TROPOSPHER

here:

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APPED

H

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B

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R

IO

T

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R

A

D

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R

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EARTH

F

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The concept of global warming

In a greenhouse, glass allows sunlight in but prevents some infrared radiation from escaping. The gases in the earth’s atmosphere which exert a similar effect are called “greenhouse gases” (GHGs). Of the man-made greenhouse gases, the most important are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and the halocarbons (CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs).

Different gases absorb and trap varying amounts of infrared radiation. They also persist in the atmosphere for differing time periods and influence atmospheric chemistry (especially ozone) in different ways. For example, a molecule of R12 has about the same effect on radiation as 16,000 CO2 molecules. A molecule of methane has approximately 21 times the effect of CO2; but its lifetime is far shorter. The GWP is an index which compares the warming effect over time of different gases relative to equal emissions of CO2

(by weight). A table of the ODP and GWP of various refrigerants is included in Chapter 2. HFCs do not have chlorine, and in this way, don’t destroy the ozone layer, but they do contribute to global warming. For this reason, they are in the group of gases controlled by Kyoto Protocol. These gases are: CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).

Scientific measurements have shown that in the last century, the Earth’s average near-surface atmospheric temperature rose 0.6 ± 0.2 °C, mostly attributable to human activities increasing the concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Moreover, a global temperatures increase by between 1.4 and 5.8 °C between 1990 and 2100 has been predicted by the models and disseminated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

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The greenhouse warming effect causes an increase in global temperatures and consequently potentially catastrophic effects, such as rising sea level, changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, higher or lower agricultural yields, glacier retreat, and so on. These are the reasons why the international community has decided to control the emissions of GHGs through the Kyoto Protocol signed in 1997 and entered into force in 2005.

Direct global warming of refrigerants

The halocarbons, and among them the main refrigerants, absorb the infrared radiation in a spectral range where energy is not removed by CO2 or water vapour, thus causing a warming of the atmosphere. In fact these halocarbons are strong GHGs since their molecules can be thousands of times more efficient at absorbing infrared radiation than a molecule of CO2. CFCs and HCFCs have also a significant indirect cooling effect, since they contribute to the depletion of stratospheric ozone that is a strong UV radiation absorber, but this effect is less certain and should vanish with the reduction of the ozone hole. The direct warming potential of a molecule is proportional to its radiative effect and increases with its atmospheric lifetime. The direct global warming effect of a given mass of substance is the product of the GWP and the amount of the emissions: this explains why CO2 has a much greater overall contribution to global warming than halocarbons, since the total mass of CO2 emitted around the world is considerably more massive than the mass of emitted halocarbons.

Direct emissions of GHGs may occur during the manufacture of the GHG, during their use in products and processes and at the end of their life. Thus, the evaluation of their emissions over all their life, cycle is necessary. It is noteworthy that at present a large amount of

halogenated refrigerants is in banks (i.e. CFC, HCFC and HFC that have already been manufactured but have not yet been released into the atmosphere such as contained in existing equipment, products and stockpiles, etc.) It is estimated that in 2002, the total amount of refrigerants (CFC and HFC) banked in domestic refrigeration,

i.e. the sum of refrigerant charge contained in all refrigerators in operation or wasted, amounted to 160,000 tonnes. Despite the fall in the production of CFCs, the existing bank of CFCs, as refrigerant in all RAC applications and including the amount contained in foams, is over 1.1 million tonnes and is therefore a significant source of potential emissions. Banks of HCFCs and HFCs are being established as use increases. The management of CFC and HCFC banks is not controlled by the Montreal Protocol or taken into account under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The emission of these banks could give a significant contribution to global warming in the future.

Energy-related contribution to global warming

When considering the global warming impact of RAC equipment, one should address both the “direct” emissions, and the energy-related emissions. When these two contributions are added together, it provides and overall appreciation of the greenhouse gas impact of the equipment as a whole. The direct emissions are those of the refrigerant itself, for example, when the refrigerant leaks out, or when it is released during servicing or disposal.

The energy-related contribution is represented by the emissions of GHGs (mainly CO2) that arise from the production of electricity from, for example, fossil fuels. Over the entire life cycle of the RAC equipment, considerable amounts of electricity will be consumed, and in many countries, this is mainly generated through the burning of high-carbon content fuels, such as coal, oil and gas. In certain

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countries which rely heavily on hydro-electricity or other renewable energy resources (such as solar, wind, geothermal, and biomass), or nuclear power, there are minimal emissions of CO2 per kWh

of electricity consumed. In countries that use carbon-intensive electricity production, emissions can be around 1 kg of CO2 per kWh. In these countries, the energy used is often the dominant contribution to equipments’ GHG emissions. Therefore, it is important to also improve and maintain the efficiency of RAC equipment over its entire lifetime.

Certain concepts are often used to evaluate the overall lifetime GHG impact of RAC systems. These include a variety of names: Total Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI), Life Cycle Climate Performance (LCCP), and Life Cycle Warming Impact (LCWI), amongst others. Essentially, all these concepts are the same: they add the total equivalent GHG emissions from different sources together, over the lifetime of the equipment. The purpose of doing this is often used to compare different technologies, and more constructively, to identify which aspects of the equipment could be most effectively optimised to help reduce its global warming impact. Lastly, it is of utmost importance to carry out such evaluations with attention to detail, since there are myriad assumptions involved, and as such it is easy to draw erroneous conclusions.

The Earth has a natural temperature control system. Certain atmospheric gases are vital in this system and are known as greenhouse gases. The Earth’s surface becomes warm and as a result of incoming solar radiation and then emits infrared radiation. The greenhouse gases trap some of the infrared radiation thus warming the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous

oxide: together they create a natural greenhouse effect. Without this phenomenon the Earth’s average temperature would be more than 30°C (60 °F) lower throughout the year.

Global warming might also slow down the ozone layer’s recovery; despite the temperature rise in the troposphere, the air might even cool down in the stratosphere, which is favourable to the depletion of the ozone layer. The heat budget is dynamic – it is changing.

For example: at the time of the dinosaurs there was more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, trapping more heat, creating a higher planetary temperature. This is an example of a feedback system.

Activity

Affect	Increase Earth’s	Decrease Earth’s
	Temperature	Temperature
Cutting down forests will:	√
A major volcanic eruption will:	√	√
		(May also offer
		some cooling as
		particles in the
		atmosphere
		reflect the sun’s
		rays)
Burning fossil fuels leading to increased	√
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will:
The addition of CFCs will:	√
The addition of HCFCs will:	√
The addition of HFCs will:	√

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Timeline activity

An overview of refrigerant development, phase out CFC and Phase out HCFC are given here:

19th Century

Refrigeration technology using the thermodynamic vapour compression cycle technology was first developed in the middle of the 19th Century. The technology used four basic components (compressor, condenser, evaporator and device expansion) and a working fluid, called a refrigerant. Since then, the RAC industry has evolved significantly, and has been present in many social sectors.

1930s

CFC and HCFC refrigerants were developed and have been used in the 1930s and 1940s.

1970s

During the 1970s CFC and HCFC refrigerants were found to be directly connected to a global environmental problem: the depletion of the ozone layer.

1987

CFC and HCFC are scheduled to be eliminated by the Montreal Protocol, an international agreement established in 1987. As well as contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer, CFCs and HCFCs are strong greenhouse gases, thus contributing to the global warming process. Since the establishment of Montreal Protocol, the refrigeration industry has been searching substitutes to CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants. At the same time, the industry has been developing ways to conserve these refrigerants, making

the installations more leak-tight, adopting procedures for recovery and treatment of refrigerants for re-use, and converting installations to use zero ozone depleting substances (ODS) and low-global warming refrigerants. These procedures are now part of the so-called good practices of RAC servicing, and this manual has the objective of summarise them, helping technicians to deal with the upcoming challenges within the field of RAC.

2006

Global HCFC production was 34,400 ODP tonnes and approximately 75% of global HCFC use was in air-conditioning and refrigeration sectors. The main HCFC used is R22 or chlorodifluoromethane.

2007

At the 20th anniversary meeting of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, in Montreal, agreement was reached to adjust the Montreal Protocol’s schedule to accelerate the phase-out of production and consumption of HCFCs. This decision will result in a significant reduction in ozone depletion, with the intention of simultaneously reducing the global warming impact. In addition to the HCFC accelerated phase-out schedules, the 2007 Meeting of the Parties of the Montreal Protocol approved a decision to encourage Parties to promote the selection of alternatives to HCFCs that minimise environmental impacts, in particular impacts on climate, as well as meeting other health, safety and economic considerations (Decision XIX/6: Adjustments to the Montreal Protocol with regard to Annex C, Group I, substances or so-called HCFCs).

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Here are the schedules for HCFC phase-out schedules for Article 5

(developing) countries and Non-Article 5 countries:

Environmental

Article 5 countries HCFC phase-out schedules (production and consumption)

Level	Year
Baseline	Average of 2009 and 2010
Freeze	2013
10% reduction (90% of baseline)	2015
35% reduction (65% of baseline)	2020
67.5% reduction (32.5% of baseline)	2025
Total phase-out	2030
2.5 % of baseline averaged over ten years
(2030-2040) allowed, if necessary, for
servicing of refrigeration and air-conditioning	2030-2040
equipment until 2040

Non-Article 5 countries HCFC phase-out schedules (production and consumption)

Level	Year
Baseline	1989 HCFC consumption + 2.8%
	of 1989 consumption
Freeze	1996
35% reduction (65% of baseline)	2004
75% reduction (25% of baseline)	2010
90% reduction (10% of baseline)	2015
Total phase-out	2020
0.5 % of baseline restricted to servicing of
refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment	2020-2030
until 2030

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Alternative refrigerants and regulations

Hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants were developed in the 1980s and 1990s as alternative refrigerants to CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs do not contain chlorine, and therefore do not destroy the ozone layer. They do, however, contribute to global warming; HFCs are greenhouse gases and as such they are in the group of gases included within the Kyoto Protocol. Several regions and countries in the world are adopting regulations to contain, prevent and thereby reduce emissions of the fluorinated greenhouse gases covered by the Kyoto Protocol.

Examples of regulation:

European

USA

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European

One example is regulation (EC) no 842/2006 of the European Parliament. It applies to several HFC compounds, among them the R134a, and R404A.

According to this Regulation, for stationary refrigeration, air conditioning and heat pump units over 3 kg charge (6 kg if hermetic), operators must:

•      Prevent leakage, and repair any leaks as soon as possible

•      Arrange proper refrigerant recovery by certified personnel during servicing and disposal

•      Carry out regular leak checks (e.g. at least once every three months for applications with 300 kg or more of fluorinated gases) by certified competent staff

•      Maintain records of refrigerants and of servicing

•      Provide labelling of equipment containing fluorinated gases

•      Prohibit of placing on the market certain equipment containing fluorinated gases such as non-refillable containers.

For non-stationary equipment (e.g., mobile units on trucks) and any other products containing fluorinated gases, operators must ensure that appropriately qualified personnel are used to recover gases, as long as this is feasible and not excessively expensive.

Other European measures regarding the use of HFCs are covered by the Directive 2006/40/EC, relating to emissions from air-conditioning systems in motor vehicles, which bans fluorinated gases with a GWP higher than 150 (such as R134a) as of 2011 for new models of cars.

USA

Another case of regulations concerning the use of HFC compounds are the measures adopted by the California Air Resources Board in 2007, to reduce the HFC emissions from mobile vehicle air conditioning (MVAC) systems. These measures will control HFC releases from MVAC servicing, requiring leak tightness test, repair to smog check, enforce the federal regulations on banning HFC release from MVAC servicing, dismantling, and require using low-GWP refrigerants for new MVAC.

Mobile Vehicle Air Conditioning manufacturers are testing alternative refrigerants to meet the long-term needs of automotive manufacturers. Currently there are two alternatives under consideration: R744 (carbon dioxide) and R1234yf (an unsaturated HFC). Both have low GWP, are of lower toxicity, and whilst R744 is non-flammable, R1234yf has a lower flammability classification. These new alternatives are still in the testing and development phase, and it is not clear whether either one or both will be adopted for MVAC systems.

With the continued environmental pressure on refrigerants, technological innovations have helped in the consideration of “natural refrigerants” (ammonia, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide) as a safe and economic options for RAC applications in many areas. Because of smaller environmental impacts and for being more appropriate in terms of sustainable technological development perspective, refrigeration systems with natural refrigerants could have an important role in the future as technical solution in many applications.

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The way forward

Changing refrigerant options and efficiency goals are likely to drive further innovations in air conditioning and refrigeration equipment. Technical options are being developed to lower refrigerant charges in equipment, thereby decreasing refrigerant emissions, and cooperating for the responsible use of all alternatives. Due to technological development and adoption of sustainability policies, it is predicted an increase of natural refrigerant applications. Use of indirect systems (applying heat transfer fluids in secondary systems) is growing since it helps also to reduce charge sizes, to enable use of sealed systems, and to facilitate application of flammable alternatives.

Contrary to non-Article 5 countries, the demand for service refrigerants in most Article 5 countries will consist of CFCs and HCFCs, a tendency driven by long equipment life and with the costs of field conversion to alternative refrigerants, and the availability

of such alternatives. One of the main concerns will be maintaining adequate supplies of HCFCs. Refrigerant conservation programmes to be established for CFCs in Article 5 countries will mostly be government sponsored and regulatory in nature. As in many non-Article 5 countries, they may include restrictions on the sale, use, and end-of-life disposal requirements that mandate recovery and recycling of refrigerants. These programmes will be expanded in countries without such requirements.

Further reading

UNEP DTIE OzonAction – Ozone Protection, Climate Change & Energy Efficiency, Centro Studi Galileo / UNEP, 2007

4     www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/mmcfiles/4824-e-ozoneclimenerg.pdf

Ozone Secretariat, Refrigeration – reports of the Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee (RTOC)

4    www.ozone.unep.org/teap/Reports/RTOC/

UNEP DTIE OzonAction – Protecting the Ozone Layer, Volume 1, Refrigerants, UNEP, 2001

4    www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/mmcfiles/2333-e.pdf

International Panel on Climate Change - IPCC special report on Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues related to Hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons, IPCC / TEAP, 2005

4    www1.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sroc.htm

European Commission Environment - web section on fluorinated

greenhouse gases

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/fluor/index_en.htm